This
chapter begins a two-chapter approach examining individual differences. Much
of this chapter is related to interactional psychology, and the advances made
regarding personality and behavior in specific situations. Personality characteristics discussed are
locus of control, self-efficacy, self-esteem, self-monitoring, and
positive/negative affect. Personality
theories explained are trait theory, psychodynamic theory, humanistic theory,
and the integrative approach. The
chapter also examines how social perceptions influence the way we view the
world, and how attributions influence how we assign causality for behaviors.
After reading this chapter,
you should be able to do the following:
1. Describe individual differences and their importance in
understanding behavior.
2. Define personality.
3. Explain four theories of personality.
4. Identify several personality characteristics and their influences
on behavior in
organizations.
5. Explain how personality is measured.
6. Discuss Carl Jung’s contribution to our understanding of
individual differences, and explain how his theory is used in the Myers-Briggs
Type Indicator.
7. Define social perception
and explain how characteristics of the perceiver, the target, and the situation
affect it.
8. Identify five common barriers to social perception.
9. Explain the attribution process and how attributions affect
managerial behavior.
KEY TERMS
Chapter 3 introduces the
following key terms:
individual differences interactional
psychology
personality trait
theory
psychodynamic theory humanistic
theory
integrative approach locus of
control
generalized self-efficacy self-esteem
self-monitoring positive
affect
negative affect strong
situation
projective test behavioral
measures
self-report questionnaire Myers-Briggs
Type Indicator (MBTI) extraversion introversion
sensing intuiting
thinking feeling
judging perceiving
social perception discounting
principle
selective perception stereotype
first-impression error projection
self-fulfilling prophecy impression
management
attribution theory fundamental
attribution error
self-serving bias
I. THINKING AHEAD: How Norman Brinker Made His Mark (and His
Fortune)
II. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
This chapter explores differences in
individuals’ skills, abilities, personalities, perceptions, attitudes, values,
and ethics.
Interactional
psychology
offers a useful approach to understanding individuals in organizations. This approach emphasizes understanding the
person and the situations in order to understand human behavior.
III. PERSONALITY
Personality is an individual difference
that lends consistency to a person’s behavior.
Both heredity and environmental forces shape personality.
A. Personality Theories
The four major theories of
personality are listed in order of their time frame of study, with trait theory
research rare in today's literature.
1. Trait Theory
Trait theory states that in order to understand individuals, we must break down
behavior patterns into a series of observable traits.
2. Psychodynamic Theory
The second important theory
is based on the work of Sigmund Freud. Psychodynamic theory emphasizes the
unconscious determinants of behavior.
3. Humanistic Theory
Humanistic theory emphasizes individual growth and improvement, as popularized by Carl Rogers.
4. Integrative Approach
The integrative approach describes personality as a composite of an
individual's psychological processes.
B. Personality Characteristics in
Organizations
Hundreds of personality
characteristics have been identified that are relevant to personality. Some characteristics with interesting
implications in organizations are locus of control, self-esteem, self-efficacy,
self-monitoring, and positive/negative affect.
1.
Locus of Control
The degree to which
individuals perceive control over a situation being internal or external is
called locus of control. Locus of control refers to the range of beliefs that individuals hold in terms of
being controlled by self (internal locus) or controlled by others or the
situation (external locus).
2. Self-Efficacy
Generalized self-efficacy refers to a belief about one’s own ability to deal
with events and challenges. High
self-efficacy results in greater confidence in one’s job-related abilities to
function effectively on the job. Success
in previous situations leads to increased self-efficacy for present and future
challenges.
3. Self-Esteem
An individual's self-worth
is referred to as self-esteem. Individuals with high self-esteem have
positive feelings about themselves. Low
self-esteem individuals are strongly affected by what others think of them, and
view themselves negatively.
4. Self-Monitoring
The extent to which people
base their behavior on cues from other people and situations is self-monitoring. Individuals high in self-monitoring pay
attention to what behavior is appropriate in certain situations by watching
others and behaving accordingly. Low
self-monitoring individuals prefer that their behavior reflects their attitudes,
and are not as flexible in adapting their behavior to situational cues.
5. Positive/Negative Affect
Individuals exhibit
attitudes about situations in a positive or negative fashion. An individual's tendency to accentuate the
positive aspects of situations is referred to as positive affect, while those accentuating less optimistic views are
referred to as having negative
affect. Employees with positive
affect are absent from work less often. Negative affect individuals report
higher levels of job stress.
C. Measuring
Personality
There are a host of methods
that can be used to measure and assess personality. The most popular are projective tests, behavioral
measures, and self-report
questionnaires. In projective tests,
individuals describe what they see in images they are shown. Behavioral measures involve observation of
behavior in controlled situations.
Individuals respond to a series of questions in self-report
questionnaires.
IV. A
POPULAR APPLICATION OF PERSONALITY THEORY IN ORGANIZATIONS: THE MYERS-BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR
Carl Jung developed the Jungian theory of
individual differences. The MBTI is an instrument to measure this
theory. Jung suggested that human
similarities and differences could be understood by combining performance. People are not exclusively one way or
another; there is a preference for extraversion or introversion, just as there
is for right- or left-handedness.
A. The
Preferences
The combination of the four basic preferences indicates a
person’s psychological type.
1. Extraversion/Introversion
Extroverts are
energized by interactions with others while introverts prefer time
alone.
2. Sensing/Intuiting
Sensors gather information through the five
senses. Intuitors gather
information through a “sixth sense.”
3. Thinking/Feeling
Thinkers make logical, objective
decisions. Feelers make decisions in a
more personal way.
4. Judging/Perceiving
Judgers
have a preference for closure and organization in their life while perceivers are more spontaneous and
try to keep their options open.
B. The
Sixteen Types
The four preferences can
be combined to form sixteen psychological types. Types are not
inherently
good or bad. Each has its own strengths
and weaknesses.
V. SOCIAL PERCEPTION
Social
perception affects
the way we view the world around us. It
is the process of interpreting information about other people, a process
heavily used by management.
A. Characteristics
of the Perceiver
Several characteristics of a perceiver define one's
perception of another person.
Familiarity with the person being perceived leads the perceiver to
believe that he or she understands the intentions of the individual. Attitudes and moods also affect one’s
impressions of others. The perceiver's
self-concept leads to a more negative or positive view of the attributes of
others. Finally, a person’s cognitive
structure, or pattern of thinking, affects his or her perception of others.
B. Characteristics
of the Target
The person
being perceived influences the social perception process through a combination
of physical appearance, verbal and nonverbal communication, and apparent
intentions.
C. Characteristics of the Situation
The social
context in which you meet an individual has a great deal to do with perceiving
the individual positively or negatively. The strength of the situational cues
also affects person perception. Strong
situational cues lead to the assumption that the situation prompts a person's
behavior rather than his/her own personality.
D. Barriers
to Social Perception
There are five distinct
barriers to social perception, which are: selective perception, stereotyping,
first-impression error, projection, and self-fulfilling prophecies.
Selective perception is the process of selecting information that
supports our individual viewpoints while discounting information that threatens
our viewpoints. This approach leads to
verbal rationalizations. When we stereotype an individual, we generalize
and do not allow his or her individual strengths to be relevant to our perception
of him or her. First impression error is the tendency to form lasting opinions
about an individual based on the initial meeting or perception. This is a major difficulty with hiring from
interviews, where the first impression lasts into the socialization
process. Projection involves the tendency to assume that other people are
similar to us and that our own values and beliefs are appropriate. In some cases, our expectations affect the
way we interact with others to produce a certain outcome. This is referred to as a self-fulfilling prophecy.
E. Impression
Management
The conscious monitoring and
manipulation of others' opinions is referred to as impression management.
VI. ATTRIBUTION IN ORGANIZATIONS
As humans, we
are naturally curious about the causes of our behavior and the behavior of
others. The process of assigning
causality to behavior is referred to as attribution.
A. Internal
and External Attributions
The process of connecting behavior and performance to specific internal
or external sources of control is known as attribution.
B. Attributional
Biases
There are two common errors
that affect the attribution process: self-serving bias, and the fundamental
attribution error. Fundamental attribution error is the tendency to make attributions
to internal causes when focusing on someone else's behavior. Self-serving
bias is the tendency to attribute one's own successes to internal causes
and one's failures to external causes.
VII. MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS:
USING PERSONALITY, PERCEPTION, AND ATTRIBUTION AT WORK
VIII. LOOKING BACK: Brinker
International
CHAPTER SUMMARy
Individual differences are
factors that make individuals unique.
They include personalities, perceptions, skills and abilities, attitudes,
values, and ethics.
The trait theory,
psychodynamic theory, humanistic theory, and integrative approach are all
personality theories.
Managers should understand
personality because of its effect on behavior.
Several characteristics affect behavior in organizations, including
locus of control, self-esteem, self-efficacy, self-monitoring, and
positive/negative affect.
Personality has a stronger influence
in weak situations, where there are few cues to guide behavior.
One useful framework for
understanding individual differences is type theory, developed by Carl Jung and
measured by the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI).
Social perception is the
process of interpreting information about another person. It is influenced by characteristics of the
perceiver, the target, and the situation.
Barriers to social perception
include selective perception, stereotyping, first impression error, projection,
and self-fulfilling prophecies.
Impression management
techniques such as name-dropping, managing one's appearance, self-descriptions,
flattery, favors, and agreement are used by individuals to control others'
impressions of them.
Attribution is the process of
determining the cause of behavior. It is
used extensively by managers, especially in evaluating performance.
REVIEW QUESTIONS: Suggested Answers
1. What are the individual differences, and why should managers
understand them?
In order to understand human
behavior, we must know something about the person and about the situation. Because no two individuals are alike,
managers face the challenge of working with people who possess a multitude of
individual characteristics. Important
individual differences include personality characteristics, social perceptions
and attributions of causality. The more
a manager understands these differences, the better he or she can work with
others.
2. Define personality, and
describe its origins.
Personality is a relatively
stable set of characteristics that influences an individual's behavior. Family influences, cultural influences,
educational influences, and environmental forces all shape personality.
3. Describe four theories of personality and what each contributes to
our knowledge of personality.
The four theories of
personality are trait theory, psychodynamic theory, humanistic theory, and the
integrative approach. Trait theory was
the earliest approach toward studying personality, and in part because of
criticism of its approach, it provided the basis for other types of
theories. Psychodynamic theory, based on
the work of Freud, emphasizes the unconscious determinants of behavior. Humanistic theory emphasizes individual
growth. The integrative approach is the
most comprehensive because it includes a variety of psychological processes.
4. Describe the eight preferences of the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator. How does this instrument
measure Carl Jung's ideas?
Jung's theory of individual
differences is put into application through the Myers-Briggs instrument. The initial division he proposed was between
extroverted and introverted individuals.
He added the measurements of sensing and intuiting, which depict how
individuals gather information. The
third set includes thinking and feeling, styles of decision-making, and the
fourth set reflects one's orientation to the outer world.
5. What factors influence social perception? What are the barriers to social perception?
Perception is influenced by
all things with which we come into contact, and helps us understand our
surroundings and ourselves. Selective
perception is the tendency to choose information that supports our
viewpoints. Stereotyping is a
generalization made about a group of people, and is often inaccurate. First impression error is the tendency to
form lasting opinions about an individual based on initial perceptions. Projection involves the tendency to assume
that other people are similar to us and that our own values and beliefs are
appropriate. Self-fulfilling prophecies
are expectations that become reality.
6. Describe the errors that
affect the attribution process.
Fundamental attribution error is
the tendency to make attributions to internal causes when focusing on someone
else's behavior. Self-serving bias is
the tendency to attribute one's own successes to internal causes and one's
failure to external causes.
DISCUSSION and communication QUESTIONS: suggested answers
1. What contributions can high self-monitors make in
organizations? Low self-monitors?
High self-monitors would do
well in sales jobs or in any position that requires meeting the public because
of their attentiveness to cues from other people and from situations. Low self-monitors would do well in jobs that
are consistent with their fundamental beliefs.
Because they prefer that their behavior is consistent with their
attitudes, they would be uncomfortable in certain sales situations, such as
having to sell a product they didn't believe in.
2. How can managers improve their perceptual skills?
Managers need to be aware of
characteristics in themselves, in situations, and in other people that affect
social perception. They need to
understand the barriers to accurate perception and guard against these
barriers.
3. Which has the stronger impact on personality: heredity or
environment?
This is a good discussion
question in class, particularly if there are psychology and sociology students
taking the organizational behavior course.
There are good arguments for either position. Both have an impact.
4. How can managers make more accurate attributions?
Managers can make more
accurate attributions by gathering information carefully and possessing an
awareness of self-serving bias and fundamental attribution error.
5. How can managers encourage self-efficacy in employees?
Managers can provide job
challenges, coaching and counseling for improved performance, and reward
employees' achievements to enhance self-efficacy.
6. How can self-serving bias and the fundamental attribution error be
avoided?
Awareness
is the first step. Careful information
gathering and conscious attention to one's own attributional tendencies are
essential. Owning up to one's failures
is important.
7. You have been asked to develop a training program for
interviewers. An integral part of this
training program focuses on helping interviewers develop better social
perception skills. Write an outline for
this section of the training program. Be
sure to address barriers to social perception and ways to avoid these barriers.
During
class discussion, encourage students to share interview experiences they have
had in which misperceptions played a role.
This would also be a good assignment to refer back to during the
discussion of learning in Chapter 6.
8. Form groups of four to
six, and then split each group in half.
Debate the origins of personality, with one half taking the position
that personality is inherited, and the other half taking the position that
personality is formed by the environment.
Each half should also discuss the implications of its position for
managers.
To
enhance the debate, this assignment could be made prior to the class in which
the debate will occur so that students have the opportunity to conduct outside
research on the different perspectives.
ETHICS QUESTIONS: suggested answers
1. What are the ethical uses of personality tests? What are the unethical uses?
Hiring, firing,
or promoting someone on the basis of a personality test is not only unethical,
it is illegal. Students may have
interesting examples of tests that they have heard have been administered. Personality tests should be used to enhance
one's understanding of self and others.
2. Suppose a
manager makes an incorrect attribution for an employee's poor performance (for
instance, the manager cites equipment failure), and peers know the employee is
at fault. Should they blow the whistle
on their colleague?
The preferable
way to approach the situation is through problem reporting, either with the
supervisor or an established outlet in the organization. (Whistle-blowing typically refers to going
outside the organization.) Perhaps the
co-workers should try to assist the employee before reporting him or her.
3. Suppose one of your colleagues wants to eliminate all biases and
stereotypes from the hiring process. He
suggests that only résumés be used, with no names or other identifying data –
only experience and education. What are
the ethical consequences of this approach?
Would any group be unfairly disadvantaged by this approach?
It might be admirable and a
decent gesture to approach equality in this fashion, but it is also naïve. Although the interviewing technique is flawed
with first impression biases and selection biases, it is also a way to
ascertain the fit between the position and the individual. This approach may disadvantage those who may
have developed appropriate knowledge and skills in ways that cannot be easily
described in a résumé.
4. Suppose a manager makes a misattribution of an employee's poor
performance. What are the ethical
consequences of this?
These misattributions could be a result of sexist,
racist, homophobic, or elitist attitudes, or other biases. When managers make
misattributions based on biases, employees are treated unfairly and, in
addition to ethical consequences, those managers may even expose themselves and
their companies to legal consequences.
CHALLENGES
3.1 ARE YOU A HIGH OR
LOW SELF-MONITOR?
Students
should complete this challenge prior to class discussion on self-monitoring so
that their responses will not be biased.
During class discussion, students can be asked how their self-monitoring
tendency might influence their performance on the job.
3.2 SEX ROLE
STEREOTYPES
Completing
this challenge will help students understand their own beliefs about sex
roles. High scores indicate a strong belief
in traditional sex roles and a tendency to stereotype those roles.
EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES
3.1 MBTI Types and Management Styles
This
exercise illustrates David Keirsey's temperaments and their related management
styles. Students should complete the
MBTI prior to the exercise. Most
university counseling centers can administer the MBTI and provide individual
results for students.
To
do the exercise, students should be assigned to groups according to their
temperament: NF, NT, SJ, or SP. The rather
vague task students are assigned is intended to bring out the different
management styles of the various temperaments.
The exercise works best when students are not aware of their MBTI types.
Instructors
who are unfamiliar with the MBTI may wish to have someone who has completed the
MBTI certification training help debrief the students at the end of the
exercise.
To
complete the exercise, do the following:
1.
Have students complete the MBTI. Score
the questionnaires if the short version is used.
2.
Assign students to groups based on their temperaments.
3.
Have students complete the group task.
4.
Ask each group to report to the class.
5.
As each group reports, reveal its temperament and management style, using the
information that follows.
6.
Hand out individual MBTI profiles and discuss them.
MBTI Temperaments and Leadership Styles
NF -- NFs are catalysts. Their focus
is on individuals within the organization and on individual growth. They use a very participative style and are
often referred to as charismatic. NFs
are verbally fluent and are superb at giving feedback. They are good listeners and talented at
managing interpersonal transactions.
They see the possibilities in people and can often turn liabilities into
assets. NFs are likely to become worn
out and overextended by their focus on relationships. They have a high need for approval and may
seem to others to be too anxious to please.
They need positive feedback and despise impersonal treatment. They value harmony and cooperation.
NT -- NTs are visionaries. Their focus
is on designing systems and the organization's mission. They believe the organization must grow and
develop, and they place a strong emphasis on competence and intelligence. They expect a lot of themselves and of others. NTs welcome change, and focus on
possibilities. They can easily see the
long-range implications for the organization.
They tend to be on the cutting edge of things and may be
nonconformists. They are the portrait
painters of ideas and encourage ideas in their employees. They also enjoy solving problems. NTs love the creative process, but once it is
finished they prefer to let someone else take over to run the system. They value competence and achievement, and
they may ignore the feelings of others unknowingly.
SJ
-- SJs
are traditionalists. Their focus
is on the organization and its hierarchy, and they are masters at defining
policies, rules, and procedures. As
managers, they are patient, thorough, steady, and reliable. They value caution and accuracy in work. SJs preserve the traditions in life and have
a keen sense of social responsibility.
They are loyal and industrious but may be irritated when others do not play
by their rules. They are decisive and
are happiest when they can plan their work and work their plan. SJs run efficient meetings and want
colleagues to get to the point and stick to it.
They can become impatient when projects are delayed and prefer sensible,
stable, reliable colleagues.
SP -- SPs are troubleshooters. They are good at putting out fires and
solving problems. They are very
realistic, and to them everything is negotiable. They display an open, flexible style and
focus on the present time. SPs like
change and are very adaptable. They
dislike being told how to do things and may become impatient with
bureaucracy. If there are no fires to
put out, SPs may make mischief. They do
not enjoy maintaining the status quo but want to be where the action is. SPs listen to their superiors but may not do
what they are told. They are flexible
and open-minded in relations with others, and they are easy to get along
with. They may appear hard to predict
because of their flexibility.
To
learn more about management styles, we suggest the following:
D.
Keirsey and M. Bates, Please Understand
Me (Prometheus Nemesis, Del Mar, CA: 1978).
R.
Benfara and J. Knox, Understanding Your
Management Style (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1991).
O.
Kroeger and J. Thuesen, Type Talk at Work
(New York: Delacorte Press, 1992).
3.2 Stereotypes in Employment Interviews
Instructor's
Notes:
The
following exercise illustrates the influence of stereotypes on employment
interviews. Students are given a
transcript of an interview in which the candidate is applying for a job as a
laborer. The transcript reflects a
number of characteristics of the interviewee that are consistent with the
negative stereotype of African-Americans (the applicant is poor, has a criminal
record, and is behind on child support payments). The transcript also presents several items of
information inconsistent with the stereotype (the applicant is Catholic, drives
a pickup truck, and likes hockey games).
Further, information is presented that is not stereotypical (the
applicant watches television comedies, is from a small town, and is applying
for a blue-collar job).
One-half
of the students should be handed a version of the transcript that states that
the job candidate is white. The other
half of the students should be handed the version of the transcript that states
that the job candidate is African-American.
The transcript should be collected after five minutes. One week (or at least several days) later,
ask students to write down all they remember about the job candidates. Students who read about an African-American
will be more likely to recall the stereotypical African-American
characteristics.
Students
are asked to review the transcript that records an applicant's interview for a
job as a laborer. They are asked to
memorize as much of the interview as possible.
They are then asked to write down everything they can remember about the
job candidate. As you photocopy the
following interview transcript, include version 1 of the introduction with half
the copies and version 2 with the other half.
Discussion
Questions:
1.
In what ways does the exercise show that stereotypes can influence
interviewers, even without their awareness?
2.
Many people believe stereotypes are motivated by hate or insecurity. How do these exercise results fit this idea?
3.
What can be done to reduce the effects of stereotypes in interviews?
4.
If stereotypes help you remember information that is consistent with the
stereotype and help you ignore information that is inconsistent with the
stereotype, how can stereotypes be changed?
Introduction:
Mr.
Harris is a twenty-seven year old African-American male. He is applying for a job working on a loading
dock. Mr. Harris is interviewing as part
of a social services program.
Interview Transcript
(I = interviewer; A = applicant)
I: Please tell me a little bit about your last
job.
A: Well, the job was basically a blue-collar
job. I worked in a factory doing janitor
work mostly. Second shift for most of
the time. I didn't mind the job too
much. I've been out of work for quite a
while now. I guess you could say I was
at the poverty level for the last year.
I: Do you have a criminal record?
A: Well, yeah, but the crime wasn't too
serious. I spent a few weeks in jail for
breaking and entering when I was a kid.
Me and some friends broke into a department store. Pretty stupid.
I: Tell me a little bit about your education,
Mr. Harris.
A: I finished high school in
1980. I was brought up in a Catholic
family in a small southern country town.
So I went to a Catholic school. Kind
of unusual I guess. I used to really
give the nuns a hard time (laughs). I
was thinkin' about going to college but never made it.
I: Have you and your family adjusted well to
moving into the area?
A: Yeah, I like New
Jersey. I don't live with my wife no....er,
a ...any more. I hope to see my three
kids pretty soon. Maybe bring them up
here. Haven't seen 'em for years. I really need the job because I'm behind on
my child support.
I: What have you been doing in
your spare time?
A: Well, I been looking around
the area quite a bit. I've been drivin'
my truck, you know just checkin' things out.
I went to a hockey game the other night.
Had a good time. Otherwise I
watch a little TV. Watch a lot of
comedies.
I: Please tell me about your
accomplishments.
A: Well, I was a sort of a
star athlete in school. Our team went to
the state tournament. I suppose I could
have been a college player. Besides
that, I won a writing contest when I was in high school. It was for the region. Oh yeah, I got a commendation from my last
job. They wanted me to train the new
guys.
I: What are your greatest
weaknesses?
A: I could probably take orders better. But I don't get too upset. Maybe I should read a little more. 'Been a long time since school.
Introduction:
Mr.
Harris is a twenty-seven year old white male.
He is applying for a job working on a loading dock. Mr. Harris is interviewing as part of a
social services program.
Interview Transcript
(I = interviewer; A = applicant)
I: Please tell me a little bit about your last
job.
A: Well, the job was basically a blue-collar
job. I worked in a factory doing janitor
work mostly. Second shift for most of
the time. I didn't mind the job too
much. I've been out of work for quite a
while now. I guess you could say I was
at the poverty level for the last year.
I: Do you have a criminal record?
A: Well, yeah, but the crime wasn't too
serious. I spent a few weeks in jail for
breaking and entering when I was a kid.
Me and some friends broke into a department store. Pretty stupid.
I: Tell me a little bit about
your education, Mr. Harris.
A: I finished high school in
1980. I was brought up in a Catholic
family in a small southern country town.
So I went to a Catholic school. Kind
of unusual I guess. I used to really
give the nuns a hard time (laughs). I
was thinkin' about going to college but never made it.
I: Have you and your family
adjusted well to moving into the area?
A: Yeah, I like New
Jersey. I don't live with my wife
no....er, a ...any more. I hope to see
my three kids pretty soon. Maybe bring
them up here. Haven't seen 'em for
years. I really need the job because I'm
behind on my child support.
I: What have you been doing in
your spare time?
A: Well, I been looking around
the area quite a bit. I've been drivin'
my truck, you know just checkin' things out.
I went to a hockey game the other night.
Had a good time. Otherwise I
watch a little TV. Watch a lot of
comedies.
I: Please tell me about your
accomplishments.
A: Well, I was a sort of a star
athlete in school. Our team went to the
state tournament. I suppose I could have
been a college player. Besides that, I
won a writing contest when I was in high school. It was for the region. Oh yeah, I got a commendation from my last job. They wanted me to train the new guys.
I: What are your greatest
weaknesses?
A: I could probably take
orders better. But I don't get too
upset. Maybe I should read a little
more. 'Been a long time since school.
The
MBTI - What it is!
The
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a self-reporting, nonjudgmental (does not
assign a "good" or "bad" connotation) psychological
instrument. It is designed to sort
people according to their preferences in four areas: where people get their
energy (internally or externally), how people perceive their surroundings
(detailed or intuitive), the basis of their decision making (logic or value
driven), and the lifestyle used to deal with their environment (judging or
perceiving).
The
MBTI is based on Carl Jung's research.
Dr. Jung believed that an individual's behavior reflects a pattern that
indicates a person's preference for their energy source, data collection, and
decision making. Isabel Briggs Myers and
Katherine Briggs developed the MBTI instrument based on Jung's work, personal
observation, and extensive research. The
developers added a dimension to Jung's theory that deals with a person's
lifestyle choices.
Using
an analogy is the best way to define the concept of preference. We sort people into left- and
right-handedess. Most of us clearly show
a preference for the use of one hand over the other. In the process we develop the skills,
strengths, and abilities of one hand and underdevelop the other. We still use both hands, hence one becomes
dominant and the other becomes auxiliary.
People develop their personalities in the same manner. You are born with certain traits, and if your
environment supports that development, you will have a well-developed dominant
trait, and most likely, a less-well-developed auxiliary trait. In addition you will have other parts of your
personality that receive very little attention.
These traits surface occasionally – usually when a situation exists that
puts our dominant and auxiliary traits at a disadvantage. For example, when something happens that
really upsets us, our initial response is usually much different than our
"normal" way of doing things.
The
self-reporting and self-validating done via the MBTI sorts people on the four
areas. The first area is extraversion or
introversion. The person who indicates a
preference for extraversion is one whose energy is directed outward and prefers
to interact with people and things. A
person who indicates a preference for introversion is one whose energy is
directed inward and prefers concepts and ideas.
In the former case, a person "speaks before he/she thinks" and
in the latter case, a person "thinks before he/she speaks."
The
second area that the MBTI addresses is that of perceiving or data collection
(sensing or intuition). Those people who
indicate a preference for sensing rely on actual data and pay attention to
details. Those folks who indicate a
preference for intuition rely on inspiration and look at the "big
picture."
The
third area addresses the decision-making process that people use. Those people who prefer thinking base their
decision on logic and principles. On the
other hand, those who prefer feeling base their decisions on human values and
harmonious relationships.
The final area that the MBTI addresses
is that of lifestyle. Here people
indicate their preferred and most often used mental preference (perceiving or
judging). Those who prefer judgment
indicate that decisiveness and task or project completion are important. Those who prefer perception indicate that
curiosity and starting a task or project is of value.
What
benefits do the students get from using the MBTI? The MBTI results are individually affirming,
eye opening, barrier breaking, and communication enhancing. The emphasis is always on the strength of the
preference and the fact that differences in people are strengths not
weaknesses. Arguably the biggest single
benefit is that the results of the MBTI affirm that we are all unique and that
each of us has a gift to offer. It helps
people understand themselves and those with whom they come in contact.
Additionally, because the MBTI does not put people in a "box," people
have a better understanding of the basis for certain behaviors and a healthy
appreciation for the uniqueness that each person offers.
To
administer the MBTI you need to be a "qualified user." Two methods exist: taking the correct tests
and measurements graduate course, or participating in a qualifying workshop. Most universities have certified personnel in
the testing department who can assist you with testing. If you wish to become a qualified user, two
of the companies that offer training are:
Type Resources, Inc
101 Chesnut Street #135
Gaithersburg, MD 20877
(301) 963-1283
Dr.
Hartzler, owner and senior instructor for Type Resources, wrote her
dissertation concerning the MBTI. She
has extensive publications addressing the practical aspects and applications of
the MBTI.
Otto Kroeger Associates
3605 Chain Bridge Road #C
Fairfax, VA 22030
(703) 591-6284
Mr
Kroeger is the co-author of Type Talk
and Type Talk at Work. He is currently working on an additional book
dealing with type and relationships.
We
highly recommend that the instructor and all assistants take the MBTI and
receive qualified feedback. We've placed
a series of MBTI-related exercises in strategic points throughout the
instructor's manual to show the versatility and depth of the information gained
through the use of the MBTI. We've
developed the experiential exercises to significantly enhance the material in
the following chapters: Communication, Leadership, Motivation, Decision Making,
Conflict Resolution, Power, Stress and Time Management, and Managing Change.
Although
each exercise can stand alone, we suggest that the MBTI exercises be used in conjunction
with at least one challenge from the text. The MBTI gives students insightful
clues on the behaviors of others--it helps to answer the question "why did
they act that way?" We believe that
it is highly beneficial to explore the conceptual material through reading,
lecturing, and practicing and then to offer a possible explanation of the
behavioral parameters that influenced those results. We suggest therefore that the MBTI exercises
be used after you've conducted an exercise that reinforces and highlights the
concept you are teaching.
Exercise Format
The
MBTI exercises are constructed using a format and descriptors that may be
unfamiliar to some management or organizational behavior faculty. Here's a brief explanation of the format and
unfamiliar descriptors:
Exercise
Learning Objectives:
Traditional
meaning applies. These objectives form
the basis for the exercise and provide the central point for any modifications
you feel are necessary.
Exercise
Overview:
A
"quick review" of the exercise.
This section should give you a flavor of what will happen and how it
will happen. Additionally, it gives the
instructor an idea of the core competency required to use the exercise.
Exercise Description:
Here
we have the step-by-step instructions. We
recommend that the instructor read all of them before proceeding. In some cases, these instructions may be too
detailed and in others, not detailed enough.
We've tried to hit the "happy medium" so that the instructor
has sufficient knowledge to conduct the exercise but does not feel constrained
to "follow the yellow brick road."
What the instructor should expect:
We've
provided a capsule version of the expected outcomes. Please use this as a frame of reference.
Although no two groups will have exactly the same outcome, the instructor
should see a definite similarity between the on-going exercise and these brief
descriptions. The instructor wrap-up is
based somewhat on the expected outcomes and how close or how far off the mark
this particular class was. Over time,
each instructor will most likely see slightly different outcomes. We encourage you to record that data for
future reference.
Instructor's
Summary:
Based
on the expected outcomes, this section provides a mini-summary of the
lesson. We're giving you, the
instructor, a guide on which to base your final remarks. We do not expect you to read this, but rather
to use it to help you focus your thoughts and ideas. We believe that even if the exercise goes
"bust" you can accomplish your learning objectives with a solid
wrap-up.
Report Out:
Reporting
out is a process used to have the students verbally state the results of their
exercise. Generally, these mini-summaries demonstrate the learning that has
occurred. During the reporting out
process and after the students are finished, we recommend that the instructor
highlight key areas and show the similarities and differences between
groups. We've found that the instructor
actively summarizing in this fashion helps the students retain the information
as well as providing fuel for the final summary.
Observers:
The
role of the observer (student or instructor) is to watch the interaction that
occurs in the group. The observer should
be looking for such things as non-verbal actions, tone, pitch, rate, word
choice, stress points, and the like. In
those instances where a student observer is used, we recommend that the student
observer give feedback to the group first, and to the class second. Generally, it takes about 5 minutes for the
group feedback as well as 3 minutes for each observer to give feedback to the
entire class. Time permitting, we
encourage the instructor to have all observers report to the class. However, in those instances where the time
remaining is insufficient, the instructor should call on one or two observers
to report out and then wrap-up the exercise.
References
For
personal study, we suggest that you read the following books:
Gifts Differing, I.B. Myers with P. B.
Myers, Consulting Psychologists Press
Portraits of Temperament and Please Understand Me, D. Keirsey, Prometheus Nemesis Books
Type Talk and Type Talk at Work, O. Kroeger, Delacorte Press
Psychological Types, C.G. Jung, Princeton
University Press
Applications of Myers-Briggs
Type Indicator in Higher Education, J. A. Provost, Consulting Psychologists Press
Identifying Cognitive Styles
Instructor's
Notes:
This exercise adapts the cognitive
styles to situations that require students to identify and define. This exercise is probably better as homework
to be discussed in class after completion.
Each method of handling the crisis is perfectly valid. Point out to students there is no
"best" cognitive style. Each
is valuable in organizations. The
cognitive styles in the exercise are as follows: Mona is NF; Denise is NT; Bill
is ST, and Blake is SF.
Identifying
Cognitive Styles
Adapted
from O. Kroeger and J. M. Thuesen, Type Talk at Work, New York: Delacorte Press, 1992, 165-166.
Assume
that it is Friday at 3:00 p.m. A
customer calls to say that a major shipment of computers you sent a week ago
has not arrived, and that they must have the computer by noon Monday. Failing to deliver the computers will result
in losing the client. The manager must
either find the shipment, or reship the computers and make sure they arrive on
time.
Below
are descriptions of how four different managers would react to this
crisis. Read their reactions, and answer
the questions that follow.
BILL accepts the reality that
the shipment of computers is lost and that he shouldn't waste time tracking it
down. He sees no alternative but to put
together a new shipment and send it out immediately. He expects all his workers to pitch in and
stay late to get the new shipment out.
MONA
considers
the possibility that the original shipment might be recovered, as this would
save everyone the trouble of having to prepare a new shipment. She attempts to motivate a team of workers to
work together to track down the shipment.
At the same time, she puts together another team to work out a backup
plan. She works back and forth between
the two teams, trying to inconvenience everyone as little as possible.
DENISE
tries to
track down the original shipment because no matter what happens it will have to
be located. She sees putting together
another shipment as the only reliable solution.
At the same time, she is going to develop a strategy for evaluating
shipping operations to ensure that this problem doesn't come up again.
BLAKE
writes off
the original shipment and feels in reality there's no time to waste looking for
it. He polls his workers to see who can
work late to put together a new shipment, and if no one volunteers, he will do
it himself.
ANSWER THE FOLLOWING:
1. Bill's cognitive style is _____________________.
What
clues were evident in his handling of the crisis?
2. Mona's cognitive style is ____________________.
What
clues were evident in her handling of the crisis?
3. Denise's cognitive style is
_____________________.
What
clues were evident in her handling of the crisis?
4. Blake's cognitive style is _____________________.
What
clues were evident in his handling of the crisis?
EXTRA EXPERIENTIAL
EXERCISES
The
following alternative exercises to supplement the material in the textbook can
be obtained from:
Marcic,
Dorothy, Seltzer, Joseph, & Vaill, Peter. Organizational Behavior: Experiences and Cases, 6th Ed. South Western College
Publishing Company, 2001.
Incongruent
Perceptions: The Case of the “Other Systems Group”. p. 29-30.
Time: 30 minutes.
Purpose: To recognize differences in perception and to
understand the impact of
those
differences on communications and decision making.
The Case of
the Predictable Bikers. p. 31-32. Time:
25-35 minutes.
Purpose: To illustrate how initial perceptions
influence subsequent attempts at
problem
solution or in communications with others.
Fandt, Patricia M. Management Skills: Practice and
Experience. West Publishing Company,
1994.
In-Basket
Exercise 2: Listening to Others. p. 15-16.
In-Basket
Exercise 4: Eliciting Ideas, Feelings,
and Perceptions from Others. p. 19-20.
CASE
QUESTIONS: SUGGESTED ANSWERS
Trilogy Software, Inc.
1.
Using the various
personality characteristics discussed in this chapter, how would you describe
Joe Liemandt’s personality?
Liemandt could be described
as having an internal locus of control, high self-efficacy, and high
self-esteem. His willingness to work long hours, take considerable risks, and
passionately pursue an idea are all indicators of an internal locus of
control—Liemandt’s belief that he controls what happens to him. High
self-efficacy and high self-esteem are reflected in Liemandt’s ambitious
pursuit of a dream and the success that resulted from fulfilling that dream.
Based on the case
description of Liemandt’s attitudes and behavior, one might surmise that he is
either an ENTP or an ENTJ according to the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. As
Table 3.3 indicates, ENTPs are characterized as follows:
·
“One exciting challenge after another.”
·
Argues both sides of a point to learn.
·
Brinksmanship.
·
Tests the limits.
·
Enthusiastic.
·
New ideas.
·
Most inventive.
·
Liemandt’s
dropping out of Stanford to develop an innovative software product relates to
being inventive and pursuing new ideas.
His risk-taking propensity relates to brinksmanship and testing the
limits. His approach to training recruits reflects testing the limits as well
as being inventive and enthusiastic.
ENTJs are described as:
·
“Life’s natural leaders.”
·
Visionary.
·
Gregarious.
·
Argumentative.
·
Systems planners.
·
Takes charge.
·
Low tolerance for incompetence.
·
Most commanding.
Liemandt’s track record of
developing a highly successful software business in less than a decade speaks
to visionary and leadership qualities. The software development itself as well
as the process of developing newly hired employees reflects the systems
planning. The Trilogy University experiences with new hires also attest to
Liemandt’s commanding presence and take charge attitude.
Liemandt’s personality also
can be characterized by considering the meanings of the dimensions underlying
the ENTP and ENTJ types. Table 3.2 provides characteristics that the students
can use in describing Liemandt’s personality.
2.
What perceptions have you
formed of Joe Liemandt? How do you think your perceptions are affected by
characteristics of you as the perceiver and Liemandt as the perceptual target?
To what extent have the barriers to social perception influenced your view of
Liemandt?
In addressing this question
students, could identify the two or three most positive perceptions they have
of Liemandt, and the two or three most negative perceptions. Then using the
framework provided by Figure 3.2, they can analyze the perceptual impact of
characteristics of the perceiver, characteristics of the target, and barriers.
3.
Which barriers to social
perception seem to influence Joe Liemandt’s attitudes and behavior? Explain
your answer.
Implicit personality theory
and the self-fulfilling prophecy can be used to explain Liemandt’s attitudes
and behavior.
Implicit personality theory
refers to the perception that we form about other people based on our own
mini-theories of how people behave. Liemandt’s high-risk preference influences
his judgments about those who are risk takers as well as those who are risk avoiders.
Powerful evidence in support of this is found in his statement that “You’ve got
to be willing to jump off a cliff for your idea.”
The self-fulfilling prophecy
involves the situation in which our expectations about people influence our
interactions with them in such a way that our expectations are fulfilled.
Liemandt’s expectations about risk takers influence how Trilogy University
operates, and in turn the extent to which successful new recruits strengthen
their risk-taking propensities. The self-fulfilling prophecy is captured in his
beliefs about giving new recruits a lot of responsibility. Liemandt says, “What
matters is the ability to learn, adapt and figure out what the answer is.
You’ve got to be willing to get in over your head and struggle to make things
happen.” So Liemandt deliberately
creates situations like this so people can learn to deal with all the
responsibility that is thrown at them.
4. Suppose that you were offered a job at Trilogy. Given the information
contained in the case, would you be inclined to accept the job offer? Explain
your answer.
“Only risk takers need
apply!” perhaps best describes the key ingredient to fitting in at Trilogy.
This question provides the opportunity for students to examine their own
risk-taking propensities, and to consider the implications of working for a
company that embraces risk taking versus one that is risk averse.
Trilogy employees must also
be willing to assume responsibility—lots of it, early in their tenure with the
company. Again, students should be asked to examine their own desires and
capabilities in relation to the issue of shouldering significant
responsibilities early in their careers.
Role Plays
Additional
role plays relevant to the material in this chapter are located in Appendix A of
this instructor's manual.
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