Sunday, 8 December 2013

Morality

Morality

What is morality, or ethics? It is a code of values to guide man’s choices and actions—the choices and actions that determine the purpose and the course of his life. Ethics, as a science, deals with discovering and defining such a code.

Moral Relativism - What's It All About?
Moral relativism is the view that ethical standards, morality, and positions of right or wrong are culturally based and therefore subject to a person's individual choice. We can all decide what is right for ourselves. You decide what's right for you, and I'll decide what's right for me. Moral relativism says, "It's true for me, if I believe it

Non cognitivism

Noncognitivism is the view that moral truths are not the kind of truths that can be known. There are a number of types of noncognitivist theory, each of which provides a slightly different analysis of moral statements. What they have in common is that each of their analyses renders moral statements as neither true nor false. In order to be known, though, a statement must be true. If then, as the noncognitivist holds, no moral statements has a truth-value, then moral truths cannot be known.

Cognitivism

Cognitivists hold that moral statements are descriptive, they attribute real moral properties to people or actions. There are two types of cognitivist: naturalists and non-naturalists.

Naturalists hold that moral properties are natural properties. This means that it is possible to give a complete analysis of morality in non-moral terms, to reduce the moral to the non-moral.

Non-naturalists hold that moral properties are not natural properties, but rather are a unique kind of property that cannot be explained in any other terms. Just as Cartesian dualists hold that there are two fundamentally different kinds of entity in the world, physical and mental, and that neither can be explained in terms of the other, so the ethical non-naturalist holds that there are two fundamentally different kinds of property in the world, non-moral and moral, and that morality cannot be reduced to non-moral terms.

Consequentialism

Is the class of normative ethical theories holding that the consequences of one's conduct are the ultimate basis for any judgment about the rightness of that conduct. Thus, from a consequentialist standpoint, a morally right act (or omission) is one that will produce a good outcome, or consequence

utilitarianism

Definition

An ethical philosophy in which the happiness of the greatest number of people in the society is considered the greatest good. According to this philosophy, an action is morally right if its consequences lead to happiness (absence of pain), and wrong if it ends in unhappiness (pain).

Since the link between actions and their happy or unhappy outcomes depends on the circumstances, no moral principle is absolute or necessary in itself under utilitarianism.

Wednesday, 20 November 2013

TIME VALUE OF MONEY

TIME VALUE OF MONEY

Future Value

The Future Value of a cash flow represents the amount, at some time in the future, that an investment made today will grow to if it is invested to earn a specific interest rate. For example, if you were to deposit $100 today in a bank account to earn an interest rate of 10% compounded annually, this investment will grow to $110 in one year. This can be shown as follows:

Year 1

$100(1 + 0.10) = $110

At the end of two years, the initial investment will have grown to $121. Notice that the investment earned $11 in interest during the second year, whereas, it only earned $10 in interest during the first year. Thus, in the second year, interest was earned not only on the initial investment of $100 but also on the $10 in interest that was paid at the end of the first year. This occurs because the interest rate in the example is a compound interest rate.

Compound Interest

Under compound interest, interest is earned not only on the initial principal but also on the accumulated interest. Interest begins to be earned on the accumulated interest as soon as it is paid, which occurs at the end of each compounding period. This is in contrast to simple interest, under which interest is only earned on the initial principal.

Valuations should generally be based on compound interest because, after the interest has been paid, the full amount, i.e., the initial principal plus interest, could be withdrawn and reinvested elsewhere. Thus, interest on the new investment would be earned on the full amount.

The interest rate in the example is 10% compounded annually. This implies that interest is paid annually. Thus the balance in the account was $110 at the end of the first year. Thus, in the second year the account pays 10% on the initial principal of $100 and the $10 of interest earned in the first year. Thus, the $121 balance in the account after two years can be computed as follows:

Year 2

$110(1+0.10) = $121 or

$100(1+0.10)(1+0.10) = $121 or

$100(1+0.10)² = $121

If the money was left in the account for one more year, interest would be earned on $121, i.e., the initial principal of $100, the $10 in interest paid at the end of year 1, and the $11 in interest paid at the end of year 2. Thus the balance in the account at the end of year three is $133.10. This can be computed as follows:

Year 3

$121(1+0.10) = $133.10 or

$100(1+0.10) (1+0.10) (1+0.10) = $133.10 or

$100 (1+0.10)³ = $133.10

A pattern should be becoming apparent. The Future Value of an initial investment at a given interest rate compounded annually at any point in the future can be found using the following equation:

where

FV_t = the Future Value at the end of year t,
CF₀ = the initial investment,
r = the annually compounded interest rate, and
t = the number of years.

Present Value

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Present Value describes the process of determining what a cash flow to be received in the future is worth in today's dollars. Therefore, the Present Value of a future cash flow represents the amount of money today which, if invested at a particular interest rate, will grow to the amount of the future cash flow at that time in the future. The process of finding present values is called Discounting and the interest rate used to calculate present values is called the discount rate. For example, the Present Value of $100 to be received one year from now is $90.91 if the discount rate is 10% compounded annually. This can be demonstrated as follows: (Refer to the Future Value page if you are unfamiliar with the calculations.)

One Year

$90.91(1 + 0.10) = $100 or

$90.91 = $100/(1 + 0.10)

Notice that the Future Value Equation is used to describe the relationship between the present value and the future value. Thus, the Present Value of $100 to be received in two years can be shown to be $82.64 if the discount rate is 10%.

Two Years

$82.64(1 + 0.10)2 = $100 or

$82.64 = $100/(1 + 0.10)2

A pattern should be becoming apparent. The following equation can be used to calculate the Present Value of a future cash flow given the discount rate and number of years in the future that the cash flow occurs. (This equation can be obtained algebraically from the Future Value Equation.)

where

PV = Present Value

CFt = Future Cash Flow which occurs t years from now

r = the interest or discount rate

t = the number of years

Present Value Example

Find the Present Value of $100 to be received 3 years from today if the interest rate is 10%.

Solution:

Present Value

Present Value describes the process of determining what a cash flow to be received in the future is worth in today's dollars. Therefore, the Present Value of a future cash flow represents the amount of money today which, if invested at a particular interest rate, will grow to the amount of the future cash flow at that time in the future. The process of finding present values is called Discounting and the interest rate used to calculate present values is called the discount rate. For example, the Present Value of $100 to be received one year from now is $90.91 if the discount rate is 10% compounded annually. This can be demonstrated as follows: (Refer to the Future Value page if you are unfamiliar with the calculations.)

One Year

$90.91(1 + 0.10) = $100 or

$90.91 = $100/(1 + 0.10)

Two Years

$82.64(1 + 0.10)² = $100 or

$82.64 = $100/(1 + 0.10)²

A pattern should be becoming apparent. The following equation can be used to calculate the Present Value of a future cash flow given the discount rate and number of years in the future that the cash flow occurs. (This equation can be obtained algebraically from the Future Value Equation.)

where

PV = Present Value
CF_t = Future Cash Flow which occurs t years from now
r = the interest or discount rate
t = the number of years

Present Value Example

Find the Present Value of $100 to be received 3 years from today if the interest rate is 10%.

Solution:

Cash Flow Streams

Present Value

The Present Value of a Cash Flow Stream is equal to the sum of the Present Values of the individual cash flows. To see this, consider an investment which promises to pay $100 one year from now and $200 two years from now. If an investor were given a choice of this investment or two alternative investments, one promising to pay $100 one year from now and the other promising to pay $200 two years from now, clearly, he would be indifferent between the two choices. (Assuming that the investments were all of equal risk, i.e., the discount rate is the same.) This is because the cash flows that the investor would receive at each point in time in the future are the same under either alternative. Thus, if the discount rate is 10%, the Present Value of the investment can be found as follows:

Present Value of the Investment

PV = $100/(1 + 0.10) + $200/(1 + 0.10)²

PV = $90.91 + $165.29 = $256.20

The following equation can be used to find the Present Value of a Cash Flow Stream.

where

PV = the Present Value of the Cash Flow Stream,
CF_t = the cash flow which occurs at the end of year t,
r = the discount rate,
t = the year, which ranges from zero to n, and
n = the last year in which a cash flow occurs.

Present Value Example

Find the Present Value of the following cash flow stream given that the interest rate is 10%.

Solution:

Cash Flow Streams

Present Value

Present Value of the Investment

PV = $100/(1 + 0.10) + $200/(1 + 0.10)²

PV = $90.91 + $165.29 = $256.20

The following equation can be used to find the Present Value of a Cash Flow Stream.

where

PV = the Present Value of the Cash Flow Stream,
CF_t = the cash flow which occurs at the end of year t,
r = the discount rate,
t = the year, which ranges from zero to n, and
n = the last year in which a cash flow occurs.

Present Value Example

Find the Present Value of the following cash flow stream given that the interest rate is 10%.

Solution:

Annuities

An Annuity is a cash flow stream which adheres to a specific pattern. Namely, an Annuity is a cash flow stream in which the cash flows are level (i.e., all of the cash flows are equal) and the cash flows occur at a regular interval. The annuity cash flows are called annuity payments or simply payments. Thus, the following cash flow stream is an annuity.

Figure 1

While, the following cash flow stream is not an annuity because the payments do not occur at a regular interval.

Figure 2

When a cash flow stream is of the form given in Figure 1, i.e., an annuity, the process of finding the Present Value or Future Value of the cash flow stream is greatly simplified.

Present Value of an Annuity

The Present Value of an Annuity is equal to the sum of the present values of the annuity payments. This can be found in one step through the use of the following equation:

where

PVA = The Present Value of the Annuity
PMT = The Annuity Payment
r = The Interest or Discount Rate
t = The Number of Years (also the Number of Annuity Payments)

Consider the annuity of $100 per year for five years given in Figure 1. If the discount rate is equal to 10%, then the Present Value of the Annuity can be found as follows:

Present Value of the Annuity

Future Value of an Annuity

The Future Value of an Annuity is calculated at the end of the period in which the last annuity payment occurs. The Future Value of the Annuity is equal to the sum of the future values of the individual annuity payments at that time. Thus, the future value of a five year annuity is computed at the end of year five. This can be found in one step through the use of the following equation:

where

FVA = The Present Value of the Annuity
PMT = The Annuity Payment
r = The Interest or Discount Rate
t = The Number of Years (also the Number of Annuity Payments)

Consider the annuity of $100 per year for five years given in Figure 1. If the discount rate is equal to 10%, then the Future Value of this Annuity at the end of period five can be found as follows:

Future Value of the Annuity

Other Compounding Periods

In the real world, interest rates are often compounded more often than once per year. By convention, interest rates are quoted on an annual basis. An interest rate, quoted on an annual basis, which is compounded more often than once per year is called a nominal rate, stated rate, quoted rate, or annual percentage rate (APR). For example, mortgages typically require monthly payments and, therefore, the interest rates quoted on mortgages are compounded monthly. Thus, the nominal interest rate on a mortgage might be 12% compounded monthly. However, the relevant rate for valuations is the periodic rate. The periodic rate is computed by dividing the nominal rate by the number of compounding periods per year.

where

r = the rate per period,
r_nom = the nominal rate, and
m = the number of compounding periods per year.

Thus a 12% nominal rate compounded monthly is equivalent to a periodic rate of 1% per month.

The following sections of this page demonstrate how to convert a nominal rate into an equivalent rate that is compounded annually and provide versions of the Present Value and Future Value formulas for use with interest rates compounded more often than once per year. The page concludes with a discussion of continuous compounding.

EAR - Effective or Equivalent Annual Rate

The Effective or Equivalent Annual Rate (EAR) is the interest rate compounded annually that is equivalent to a nominal rate compounded more than once per year. In other words, present and future values computed using the EAR will be the same as those computed using the nominal rate. The EAR is computed as follows:

EAR = the Equivalent or Effective Annual Rate,
r_nom = the nominal interest rate,
m = the number of compounding periods per year, and

Moreover, it is not proper to directly compare interest rates which have a particular compounding frequency with those that have a different compounding frequency, e.g.,, comparing 10.1% compounded semiannually with 10% compounded quarterly. This problem can be overcome by finding the EAR for each of the rates and then comparing the EARs.

First, let's find the EAR for 10.1% compounded semiannually. Here, m equals 2.

EAR for 10.1% compounded semiannually

Now, let's find the EAR for 10% compounded quarterly. Here m = 4.

EAR for 10% compounded quarterly

Thus, we see that 10% compounded quarterly is actually a higher interest rate than 10.1% compounded semiannually. Given a choice, we would prefer to invest at 10% compounded quarterly.

Present Value

The Present Value of a future cash flow when the interest rate is compounded m times per year can be calculated as follows:

where

PV = the Present Value,
CF_t = the cash flow which occurs at the end of year t,
r_nom = the nominal interest rate,
m = the number of compounding periods per year, and
t = the number of years.
Thus, mt = the number of compounding periods in t years.

In the earlier discussion of Present Value the interest rate was compounded annually and there was one compounding period per year. In that case m = 1. Thus, our earlier Present Value formula is actually just a special case of this formula since under annual compounding the rate per period is the same as the nominal rate.

Present Value Example

Find the Present Value of $100 to be received 3 years from today if the interest rate is 12% compounded quarterly.

Solution:

Future Value

The Future Value of a future cash flow when the interest rate is compounded m times per year can be calculated as follows:

where

FV = the Future Value,
CF₀ = the cash flow which occurs at time 0,
r_nom = the nominal interest rate,
m = the number of compounding periods per year, and
t = the number of years.
Thus, mt = the number of compounding periods in t years.

Thus, the earlier Future Value formula is actually just a special case of this formula since under annual compounding (i.e., when m = 1) the rate per period is the same as the nominal rate.

Future Value Example

Find the Future Value of 3 years from now of $100 invested today at an interest rate of 10% compounded semiannually.

Solution:

Present Value of an Annuity

The Present Value of an Annuity when the payments occur m times per year and the interest rate is compounded m times per year can be calculated as follows:

where

PVA = the Present Value,
PMT = the Annuity Payment which occurs m times per year,
r_nom = the nominal interest rate,
m = the number of compounding periods per year, and
t = the number of years.
Thus, mt = the number of payments and compounding periods in t years.

Thus, the earlier Present Value on an Annuity formula is actually just a special case of this formula since under annual compounding (i.e., when m = 1) the rate per period is the same as the nominal rate.

Present Value of an Annuity Example

Find the Present Value of an annuity of $100 per month for 2 years if the interest rate is 12% compounded monthly.

Solution:

Future Value of an Annuity

The Future Value of an Annuity when the payments occur m times per year and the interest rate is compounded m times per year can be calculated as follows:

where

FVA_t = the Future Value of the annuity at the end of year t,
PMT = the Annuity Payment which occurs m times per year,
r_nom = the nominal interest rate,
m = the number of compounding periods per year, and
t = the number of years.
Thus, mt = the number of payments and compounding periods in t years.

This formula can only be applied when the frequency of the annuity payments is the same as the compounding period for the interest rate. For example, if the annuity has quarterly payments the interest rate must be compounded quarterly (m = 4). As with the earlier formula, the Future Value is computed at the end of the period in which the last annuity payment occurs.

Thus, the earlier Future Value on an Annuity formula is actually just a special case of this formula since under annual compounding (i.e., when m = 1) the rate per period is the same as the nominal rate.

Future Value of an Annuity Example

Find the Future Value at the end of 3 years of an annuity of $100 per quarter for 3 years if the interest rate is 8% compounded quarterly.

Solution:

Wednesday, 9 October 2013

management versus financial accounting

Financial Accounting vs Management Accounting Management accounting is a field of accounting that analyzes and provides cost information to the internal management for the purposes of planning, controlling and decision making. Management accounting refers to accounting information developed for managers within an organization. CIMA (Chartered Institute of Management Accountants) defines Management accounting as “Management Accounting is the process of identification, measurement, accumulation, analysis, preparation, interpretation, and communication of information that used by management to plan, evaluate, and control within an entity and to assure appropriate use of an accountability for its resources”. This is the phase of accounting concerned with providing information to managers for use in planning and controlling operations and in decision making. Managerial accounting is concerned with providing information to managers i.e. people inside an organization who direct and control its operations. In contrast, financial accounting is concerned with providing information to stockholders, creditors, and others who are outside an organization. Managerial accounting provides the essential data with which organizations are actually run. Financial accounting provides the scorecard by which a company’s past performance is judged. Because it is manager oriented, any study of managerial accounting must be preceded by some understanding of what managers do, the information managers need, and the general business environment. Comparison chart Financial Accounting Management Accounting Format: Financial accounts are supposed to be in accordance with a specific format by IAS so that financial accounts of different organizations can be easily compared. No specific format is designed for management accounting systems. Planning and control: Financial accounting helps in making investment decision, in credit rating. Management Accounting helps management to record, plan and control activities to aid decision-making process. External Vs. Internal: A financial accounting system produces information that is used by parties external to the organization, such as shareholders, bank and creditors. A management accounting system produces information that is used within an organization, by managers and employees. Focus: Financial accounting focuses on history. Management accounting focuses on future & Present. Users: Financial accounting reports are primarily used by external users, such as shareholders, bank and creditors. Management accounting reports are exclusively used by internal users viz. managers and employees. Reporting frequency and duration: Well-defined - annually, semi-annually, quarterly As needed - daily, weekly, monthly. Optional?: Preparing financial accounting reports are mandatory especially for limited companies. There are no legal requirements to prepare reports on management accounting.Ads not by this site Objectives: The main objectives of financial accounting are :i) to disclose the end results of the business, and ii) to depict the financial condition of the business on a particular date. The main objectives of Management Accounting are to help management by providing information that used by management to plan, evaluate, and control. Legal/rules: Drafted according to GAAP - General Accepted Accounting Procedure. Drafted according to management suitability. Accounting process: Follows a full process of recording, classifying, and summmarising for the purpose of analysis and interpretation of the finnancial information. Cost accounts are not preserved under Management Accounting. The necessary data from financial statements and cost ledgers are analyzed. Segment reporting: Pertains to the entire organization or materially significant business units. May pertain to smaller business units or individual departments, in addition to the entire organization. Nature of information: Focus on quantitative information Focus on both qualitative and quantitative information jj COURSE; DIPLOMA IN BUSINES MANAGEMENT BDO1/0025/2010 HARRISON ONYANDO UNIT; ENTERPRENEURSHIP DBM015 SUBJECT; BUSINES PLAN TABLE CONTENT 1. BUSINESS IDEA 2. MARKETING PLAN 3. ORGANIZATION PLAN 4. PRODUTION AND OPERATION PLAN 5. FINANCIAL PLAN 6. EXECUTIVE SUMMARRY 7. APPENDICES 8. BUSINESS IDEA Name of the business Rafiki bakery limited company P.o box 001-20500 Narok Telephone no. 0789133059 Business products The business products are wheat flour, vegetable fats, bread improver, soya, preservative, calcium propionate, sugar, salt and acetic acid which will be obtained from Narok town, due to the facts that the wheat production is in larger scale in Narok County Business ownership The business is owned by the investors and shareholders whom elect board of director to managed the business on their behalf Mission of the venture To enhance mental development among the youth and the society as whole To have ability to reach ones full potential and utilizes the specialized business knowledge, skills they had gain and to pursue the owners ideas through this business To be independent, owned boss and flexibility To pursue financial reward and potentials In order to reduced bureaucracy in as other business To be self employed and create job opportunists for the youth and society as whole Objectives of the venture The primary objectives of the business is to produced and sells goods for profits of course through the satisfaction of customers wants and needs To creates customers for its products and services. The more the customers are created the wide will the market for the goods and larger the profits generation To stay in the market i.e. must offer stagnation by using efficient method of production through the use of technological advancements To have healthy climent for both employees and publics as whole To avoidances of anti-social practices i.e. hoarding, black market, smuggling and over pricing to earn more profits To supply of standard qualities and quanties of products through clearances by the Kenya bureaus of standard [KEBS] Location of the venture The premise of the company is situated along the Nairobi, Narok to Bomet highway road. Two kilometer from Narok town and one kilometer from the main road.Narok county is the highest production of wheat cereals products which will be our main sources of raw materials We obtained clearance from government bodies such as environmental management authority, ministry of health, land and local government through county council of Narok. Business requirement The requirement for the company operations are wheat cereals,labour,power sources, water supplies,fuels,machines,equipments,moto vehicles,land,buildings,linces and permits for the operation of the company; Wheat cereals; is the main sources of raw materials which is abundant in Narok county Power sources; the location of the company is closer to the power line hence connection is cheaper and fuel from Narok town Water supplies; for cooling of the machines when heated up, mixtures of the raw materials and others usages in the company Machines and equipments are very vital in the operation of the business Motor vehicles; for transportation systems into and out the premises. Labour; availability of skilled and unskilled labor because it is closer to the Narok university college and Narok town which has larger population whom are unemployed. Personnel requirements. The board of director. 1. The managing director. 2. Administration in the director office. 3. Secretary in the director office. 4. Clerk in the director office. Finance department. 1. Finance manager. 2. Chief accouter. 3. Clerk accouters. 4. Accounting staff e.g. subordinates. Production department. 1. Production manager and operation manager. 2. Materials manager. 3. Supervisor officer. 4. Machines operators. 5. Production staff. Sales and marketing department. 1. Sales and marketing manager. 2. Public relation manager. 3. Supervisors’ officers. 4. Field staff. 5. Sales and marketing staffs. Personnel’s department. 1. Personnel manager. 2. Employee’s relation officers. 3. Supervisors. 4. Record officers. 5. Personnel staff. Purchasing departments. 1. Purchasing manager. 2. Procurement. 3. Supervisors. 4. Purchasing staffs. Overalls requirements for employees in this company are;. Have computer knowledge’s, skills and experiences. The managements departments must have management roles e.g. interpersonal roles, information roles and decision roles. The management departments must possess management skills e.g. technical skills, interpersonal, conceptual skills and diagnostic skill. Any personnel within the company premises must pose the right qualification for the job he and she is seeking to perform. Any employee within the company premise must have a high moral character, integrity and impartiality in performing any functions, duties and responsibilities. Any employees must have high values of ethic in the company i.e. refuse to participates in dishonest schemes, content updating the employer on how business is doing Environmental and industry analysis. Although the production of these products are very completive the strategies situation of the company is very advantages to its competitors in term of; Consumers; the consumption of these products is very higher and we intend to produced higher quality products. Demographic factors; the region in which we intend to market the products has higher population and some are employed in different sectors within the Narok county and other places thus high demand for the products. Cultural factore;the products are for general consumption i.e. no religion and ethnic are against the products. No government restriction on the products and the formulation of the company. Supplies; the availability of wheat cereals as the main sources of raw materials within Narok County. The products are very friendly to the environment.